The Edo period (1603-1868) marked a transformative era in Japan's history beginning with Tokugawa Ieyasu’s (1543-1616) unification of the country, the establishment of the Tokugawa shogunate as the new ruling power, and the designation of Edo (modern-day Tokyo) as Japan’s new administrative capital in 1603. This shift brought the country out of a prolonged period of civil war and ushered in centuries of peace, cultivating an environment where theatre, dance, literature, and the visual arts could flourish. Society was rigidly structured into a hierarchy of warrior, farmer, artisans and merchant classes aimed at preserving Confucian moral values and social order. In spite of this societal class divide, the era’s relative stability saw the rise of the commoner class.

Edo city’s flourishing social landscape saw the emergence of the ‘chōnin’ (people of the blocks), a commoner class of townsmen and women that included both merchants and artisans. This newly developed ‘cultured’ populace prospered during the period’s buoyant economy and high literacy rates, driving the demand for affordable luxury goods and printed matter. 

In the late seventeenth century, the chōnin developed their own unique cultural movement referred to as ‘Ukiyo’ (the floating world). Deriving its name from a play on words of a Buddhist homonym phrase referring to the ‘lamentable’ and ‘fleeting world’, this movement encompassed lifestyle, literature, and visual culture, with a strong focus on hedonistic transient pleasures. ‘Ukiyo-e’ (Floating world pictures) was the visual manifestation of this new wave of artistic expression, depicting the amusements and entertainments now accessible to the commoner class. These pictures covered popular subjects such as scenes of Kabuki theatre, historical narratives, nature, and the women of the pleasure districts, available in both painting and woodblock print mediums. To further regulate social behaviour, the Shogunate confined entertainment venues, such as brothels, teahouses, and theatres to walled, enclave-like areas within major cities. These spaces became synonyms with the floating world and served as vibrant hubs where different social classes intermingled. The floating world offered an escape from the mundanity of the rigid hierarchical structure of Edo society enforced under the, at times, oppressive government. During this period, artists adapted to the visual preferences of the chōnin while continuing to provide to their traditional art patrons in the elite classes of the nobility and samurai. 

The roles of painters and sculptors evolved significantly, marking the changing perception of the artist as an ‘individual’ and ‘celebrated genius.’ Previously anonymous and occupying a similar status to artisans, artists began to gain celebrity status and develop public personas and distinctive art styles that served as a form of branding and marketing for their work.

While most ukiyo-e took the form of affordable mass-produced prints created for large-scale distribution, an equally important expression of ukiyo-e were paintings. Whether in large formats like screens or a smaller scale like painted scrolls and albums, ukiyo-e paintings decorated the houses of those who could afford them. Due to their tendency to be more costly to procure, paintings serve as important pieces for reconstructing the more holistic role that ukiyo-e played throughout the societal hierarchy. 

Ukiyo-e: Prints and Paintings 

Multicolour woodblock prints, known as ‘nishiki-e’ or brocade pictures, were synonymous with the city of Edo, serving as the capital’s signature souvenir. The commercial viability of publishing drove the widespread availability of these works. Established publishing houses, employing skilled block carvers and printers, made mass-production of affordable prints possible. These printed materials were widely distributed across the Edo region through various stores and lending libraries, significantly contributing to the popularity of the floating world. This appetite led to the origination of popular print genres such as bijin-ga (drawings of beautiful people), yakusha-e (pictures of actors), musha-e (pictures of warriors), ghosts (yureizu), flower-and-bird prints (kacho-ga), and others that captured contemporary trends, fashions and public interests.

The production of ukiyo-e prints was a collaborative process involving several specialised craftsmen. Firstly, an artist was commissioned by a publisher to draw up a design which was painted in black ink outlines on thin paper. The drawing then needed to be sealed and sanctioned by a government official or censor to legally publish the design. After this approval, the drawing was passed to the block cutter, who pasted it face down onto a block of wood and carefully cut the outlines of the design making sure to capture the artist’s brush strokes. This created the print’s key block, from which the accompanying carved blocks produced for each colour were based on. Finally, the completed carved woodblocks were sent to the printers, who printed each layer of colour to produce the final polychrome print. The entire production process was overseen and financed by the publisher who employed these artisans to sell the prints for profits. 

The price of nishiki-e prints fluctuated throughout the Edo period. However, after the Tenmei era (1781-1789), prices of nishiki-e could be purchased anywhere between 8 to 24 mon depending on size and the number of colours, with prices rising in line with inflation. According to one period report, some prints sold for the equivalent of a double serving of soba noodles. The Tokugawa government’s fluctuating enforcement of sumptuary laws, which specifically targeted excessively luxurious prints also played a role in standardising the medium’s price and overall quality. 

These commercial prints were not regarded as high art, leading to their casual and varied treatment by consumers. At best, people collected prints, storing them in boxes or albums for safekeeping. However, in many cases, they were used as mere decorations; pasted onto fans, walls, folding screens, and even clothing, without much regard for their long-term preservation. This casual approach reflects how contemporary prints were valued more for their immediate visual appeal, similar to present-day posters, than as lasting works of art.  

In contrast to the production process of prints, hand-drawn ukiyo-e paintings, known as ‘nikuhitsu-ga’ in Japan, were created entirely by the artist and their studio. This direct involvement and expanded freedom of the artist could explain why paintings held greater prestige than prints. Many ukiyo-e artists began their career with book illustrations, advancing to single-sheet print design, and ultimately devoting themselves to painting. To truly gauge the skill of ukiyo-e artists, one must examine their paintings. Unlike print quality, that heavily relies on the craftsmanship of the carver and printer, paintings reveal the true brushstroke of the artists who were allowed to work more spontaneously and explore techniques or painterly effects not possible in the print format. 

In the words of the Edo period author Asai Royoi (1610-1691), from his 1665 book Tales of the Floating world, Ukiyo is described as such:

Asai Ryoi, Tales of the Floating World